File 1.1 Course Objectives 3
File 1.2 "Good" Language? 6
File 1.3 Arbitrariness in Language 11

File 2.1 True Language? 19
File 2.2 The Birds and the Bees 22
File 2.3 Primate Studies 26

File 3.1 Phonetics: Studying Pronunciation in Spoken Language 35
File 3.2 English Consonants 40
File 3.3 English Vowels 48
File 3.4 Sagittal Section Exercises 52
File 3.5 English Transcription Exercises 54
File 3.6 Non-English Speech Sounds 57
File 3.7 Suprasegmental Features 62

File 4.1 The Value of Sounds: Phonemes 69
File 4.2 Phonological Rules 76
File 4.3 How tSolve Phonology Exercises 85
File 4.4 Phonological Analysis Exercises 92
File 4.5 Sound Substitution and Phonotactic Constraints 102
File 4.6 Implicational Laws 105

File 5.1 Words and Word Formation 113
File 5.2 Exercises in Identifying Morphemes 118
File 5.3 The Hierarchical Structure of Derived Words 120
File 5.4 Morphological Processes 124
File 5.5 How tSolve Morphology Exercises 134
File 5.6 Morphology Exercises 138

File 6.1 Linear Order, Hierarchical Structure, and Ambiguity 151
File 6.2 Lexical Categories 158
File 6.3 Phrasal Categories 165
File 6.4 Subcategories 171
File 6.5 Phrase Structure Rules 174
File 6.6 Transformations 185
File 6.7 Word Order Typology 191

File 7.1 The Goal of Semantics 197
File 7.2 Theories of Meaning 200
File 7.3 Lexical Semantics 206
File 7.4 Compositional Semantics 210
File 7.5 Color Terms 215

File 8.1 Speech Acts 221
File 8.2 Drawing Conclusions: Entailment and Implicature 228
File 8.3 Rules of Conversation 230
File 8.4 Language in Advertising 235
File 8.5 Discourse Analysis 240

File 9.1 Language and the Brain 249
File 9.2 Theories of Language Acquisition 259
File 9.3 First Language Acquisition 265
File 9.4 Milestones in Motor and Language Development 278
File 9.5 How Adults Talk tYoung Children 281
File 9.6 Adult Language Processing 287
File 9.7 Errors in Speech Production and Perception 292

File 10.1 Introduction tLanguage Variation 301
File 10.2 Variation at Different Levels of Linguistic Structure 304
File 10.3 Language and Socioeconomic Status 307
File 10.4 Language and Region 312
File 10.5 Language and Ethnicity: The Case of African-American English 318
File 10.6 An Official Language for the United States? 325
File 10.7 Language and Gender 328
File 10.8 Variation in Speech Style 337
File 10.9 Case Studies 342
File 10.10 Language Variation Exercises 345

File 11.1 Language Contact 351
File 11.2 Pidgin Languages 355
File 11.3 Creole Languages 361
File 11.4 Borrowings intEnglish 365
File 11.5 Case Studies 367

File 12.1 Language Change 375
File 12.2 The Family Tree and Wave Models 378
File 12.3 Sound Change 382
File 12.4 The Comparative Method 388
File 12.5 Reconstruction Exercises 394
File 12.6 Morphological Change 398
File 12.7 Adding New Words ta Language 403
File 12.8 Syntactic Change 405
File 12.9 Semantic Change 408
File 12.10 A Chronological Table of the History of English 412
File 12.13 Major Sound Changes in Old, Middle, and Modem English 415
File 12.14 Germanic Consonant Shifts 422

File 13.1 True Language? 427
File 13.2 American Sign Language 431

File 14.1 Language and Computers 443
File 14.2 Machine Translation 445
File 14.3 Speech Synthesis 449
File 14.4 Communicating with Computers 455

File 15.1 Writing Systems 463
File 15.2 The Whorf Hypothesis 471